How are user-generated content and social media platforms changing the reporting of humanitarian crises?
Human history is fraught with various forms of disasters, ranging from natural calamities like earthquakes and floods to human-induced crises such as epidemics and conflicts. Defining what qualifies as a 'humanitarian disaster' has often sparked debate, considering whether it stems from natural causes or human actions and the severity of its impact on vulnerable communities (Cooper, 2018). Central to this discussion is the recognition that events become disasters not solely due to their inherent nature but rather when they impact vulnerable human populations (Blaikie et al., 2006). In recent years, the rise of user-generated content and the widespread use of social media have fundamentally altered how we report on humanitarian crises. While citizen journalism, particularly through eyewitness accounts, has traditionally dominated the study of crises and conflicts, the emergence of online networked technologies has empowered ordinary individuals to engage in acts of journalism from afar (Norris, 2017). This essay delves into the profound changes brought about by user-generated content and social media platforms in the reporting of humanitarian crises, illuminating the shifting dynamics of information sharing, community involvement, and advocacy during times of adversity.
The widespread use of social media platforms has fundamentally transformed how information is shared and consumed, particularly during times of crisis. With over 3.6 billion people worldwide using social media in 2020, representing one in three individuals globally, these platforms have become integral to the spreading of news and information (Dixon, 2023). A recent survey revealed that half of adults in the United States rely on social media for news either "often" or "sometimes" (Mitchell and Shearer, 2021). This shift towards digital technologies has facilitated a dynamic change in communication, where individuals are not only consumers but also producers of information (Cook, 2008). During critical situations such as humanitarian crises, people instinctively turn to social networking platforms for sharing and receiving information. Social media emerges as a privileged platform for real-time distribution of disaster-related information as its accessibility and immediacy offer a stark contrast to traditional, time-consuming methods of data collection
and dissemination (Adini, Goldberg and Simon, 2015). As a result, social media has
completely altered humanitarian reporting, with platforms like Facebook often serving as
primary sources for photographic content (Cooper, 2017). Newsrooms react swiftly to
unfolding events, deploying reporters, photographers, and researchers to scour social
networks like Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn for pictures and information within seconds of
a story breaking (Fievez, 2011). This seamless integration of social media into the reporting
process highlights its pivotal role in shaping the narrative surrounding humanitarian crises.
The rise of user-generated content (UGC) has significantly impacted mainstream
media coverage, particularly during crisis events and humanitarian disasters. In these
situations, amateur photos and videos captured by eyewitnesses are often deemed "more
newsworthy than professional content" (Hermida and Thurman, 2008, p. 344). The
prevalence of camera-equipped mobile phones and constant access to social media platforms
have given rise to a flood of metadata during crises, documenting crucial details such as
geographic location, timestamps, and the origin of digital artifacts (Ludwig, Reuter and
Pipek, 2013). This wealth of information is vital for timely and effective emergency response
efforts. Moreover, UGC has gained traction in humanitarian reporting as mainstream media
outlets face declining revenues, leading to budget cuts and closures of traditional foreign
bureaus (Harding, 2009; Sambrook, 2010). Social media platforms like Twitter play a pivotal
role in facilitating the dissemination of information during crises. The use of hashtags enable
users to share thoughts, information, and opinions on relevant topics (Aggarwal, Erdem and
Gour, 2021; Huppertz and Otto, 2018). Online collaboration tools and protocols further
empower ordinary individuals to form virtual networks and provide assistance during distant
emergencies (Palen, 2013; Palen and Starbird, 2013). As Glocer (2006), the former head of
Reuters, noted during the Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004, “For the first 24 hour, the best and
the only photos and video came from tourist armed with telephones, digital cameras, and
camcorders”. Similarly, during the Nepal earthquake, video footage was uploaded to
YouTube within minutes of the event (Cooper, 2017), highlighting the rapid spreading of
firsthand accounts through UGC platforms.
Instantaneous reporting facilitated by user-generated content on social media
platforms has emerged as a critical advantage in addressing humanitarian crises. The global
increase in both natural and man-made disasters emphasise the urgent need for real-time
information during emergencies (Parveen, Stiegler and Tilley, 2011; Below, Guha-Sapir and
Hoyois, 2016). For humanitarian organizations and emergency management agencies, access
to timely data is crucial for making informed decisions and coordinating rapid response
efforts (Beck and Mukkamala, 2017). The speed of reaction directly correlates with the
effectiveness of relief operations, making swift dissemination of information imperative.
Thanks to today's digital age, social media serves as a powerful tool for tracking and
monitoring crisis situations in real-time (Guha and Kumar, 2018; Pal and Saroj, 2020). Users
instinctively turn to social media platforms to share their experiences and concerns during
times of crisis, providing valuable firsthand accounts from affected areas. This UGC not only
informs emergency management officials but also reaches a wide audience, enabling
governments and NGOs to plan relief services promptly while empowering other users to
donate or take immediate action to address the crisis. Moreover, the interactive nature of
social media facilitates two-way communication, allowing for direct engagement between
affected communities and relief organizations, thereby enhancing the efficiency and
effectiveness of humanitarian response efforts.
Another crucial advantage of UGC on social media in humanitarian reporting is its
ability to amplify the voices of affected communities. By bypassing traditional gatekeepers,
social media platforms enable individuals directly affected by crises to share their
perspectives and experiences without bias. Often, these voices represent communities that are
marginalized or overlooked by mainstream media outlets, providing them with a platform to
articulate their needs and concerns. Furthermore, affected communities utilize social media
not only to share information but also to mobilize and self-organize, facilitating coordination
and cooperation among themselves (Hughes et. al, 2010; Palen and Starbird, 2011). This
direct engagement with affected populations is invaluable for disaster management agencies,
as it provides real-time insights and enables more effective organization of relief activities
(Blumenschein et al., 2012). In addition to amplifying voices, social media complements
existing early warning systems by facilitating rapid information dissemination and enabling
the detection of early warnings through monitoring of social media platforms (Matsuo,
Okazaki and Sakaki, 2010). For instance, systems like the Emergency Situation Awareness
(ESA) system leverage tweet burst detection methods on platforms like Twitter to detect
earthquakes and other emergencies (Cameron et al, 2012). Moreover, during disasters,
individuals in affected areas play a significant role in immediate rescue operations. The sense
of connectedness fostered by social media platforms leads to the emergence of a new type of
volunteerism, where individuals not only share information and coordinate rescue activities
but also contribute to damage assessment and information gathering efforts. This
collaborative approach enhances the overall response to humanitarian crises, leveraging the
collective power of affected communities and volunteers facilitated by social media.
While user-generated humanitarian reporting on social media offers numerous
benefits, it also presents significant ethical constraints that must be carefully navigated. In the
context of disease outbreaks, tweets and posts often contain sensitive information such as
details of deaths, new cases of infection, and pleas for assistance from specific stakeholders
like hospitals or medical support groups (Aggarwal, Gour and Kumar, 2022). While this
information can be crucial for coordinating response efforts, there is a risk of inadvertently
disclosing personal information, which raises serious ethical concerns. For instance,
individuals identified as recipients of humanitarian assistance may face unforeseen
consequences, such as damage to their credit rating or exposure to predatory advertising for
high-interest loans or other risky content (McDonald, 2016; Kift and Latonero, 2018).
Moreover, there is a potential for surveillance and reprisals by hostile actors, including
traffickers targeting vulnerable migrants or states and armed groups seeking out political
opponents (ICRC and Privacy Internation, 2018). The metadata associated with tweets, which
includes geographic information in the form of latitude and longitude coordinates, poses
additional privacy concerns. While some users may opt not to disclose their location due to
privacy considerations, certain social media platforms may not provide geolocation
information at all. For example, while Facebook offers a "check-in" option, it does not
include geo-information in the metadata (Baatard and Hannay, 2011), making it challenging
for assistance to reach those in need. As such, navigating these ethical constraints is essential
to ensure that user-generated humanitarian reporting on social media remains both effective
and respectful of individuals' privacy and safety.
The psychological impact of user-generated humanitarian reporting on social media
cannot be overlooked. Exposure to distressing images and videos depicting people suffering
from crises, such as starvation, death, or despair, can have a profoundly negative effect on
individuals. These visuals may trigger past traumas and exacerbate feelings of distress and
helplessness. Research suggests that young people, in particular, are vulnerable to the
influence of media (Bal, Dubberley and Griffin, 2015), and repeated exposure to traumatic
images can lead to symptoms akin to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Research
highlight that the frequency, rather than the duration, of exposure to traumatic images is a
critical factor in generating PTSD-type symptoms (Audet, Feinstein and Waknine, 2014).
Moreover, witnessing distressing content depicting events that resonate personally, especially
involving children or familiar geographical regions, can heighten feelings of distress (Bal,
Dubberley and Griffin, 2015). Even audio recordings of people crying or shouting in the face
of a crisis can significantly impact viewers' psychological well-being. Therefore, while user
generated content on social media provides valuable insights into humanitarian crises, it is
essential to acknowledge and mitigate its potential psychological effects on viewers.
Measures to limit exposure to distressing content and provide support for individuals affected
by such content are crucial for safeguarding mental health in the digital age.
The credibility and usability of data sourced from social media platforms also pose
significant challenges in humanitarian reporting. Digital humanitarians, while not direct
witnesses, play a crucial role in collecting, verifying, and packaging eyewitness accounts
shared through SMS text messaging, social media, and other public sources (Norris, 2017).
However, ensuring the validity and quality of information remains a formidable challenge,
particularly in the face of rampant rumours and fake news that sow panic among the public
(Castillo, Mendoza and Poblete, 2010; Achterman et al., 2014). The rapid dissemination of
misinformation, both within and outside affected communities, exacerbates the situation,
leading to dire consequences (Rad et al., 2020). For instance, during the coronavirus
pandemic, false claims circulated on social media platforms, such as the belief that
consuming alcohol could kill the virus. This misinformation resulted in tragic outcomes, as
evidenced by the case in Iran where hundreds of fatalities occurred due to the consumption of
counterfeit alcohol containing toxic methanol (Kamran, Naeim and Rezaeisharif, 2021). Over
300 people lost their lives, with more than 1000 requiring hospitalization and many facing the
prospect of permanent vision loss (Blumenberg, Horowitz and Love, 2020). Despite the
prevalence of rumours offline, social media platforms amplify their impact due to the speed
of information dissemination (kwon, oh and Rao, 2010), the vast distances across which
connections are made, and the relative lack of content policing or moderation. These factors,
combined with the formation of 'echo chambers' and algorithmic targeting, create an
environment where distinguishing between real news and fake news becomes increasingly
challenging (Corps, 2019). This is particularly concerning in the midst of humanitarian crises
where accurate information is vital for effective response efforts.
Despite the challenges and opportunities presented by UGC on social media platforms
for humanitarian news reporting, there is a growing recognition of its essentiality if
organizations effectively process and utilize this data. With the rapid advancements in
analytical methods and technology, healthcare supply chains and organizations have
unprecedented opportunities to gather and analyse UGC data for valuable insights (Chan et
al., 2022). Social media data can serve as a proxy for understanding public sentiment and
behaviour, offering insights into responses, feedback, and adherence to policies (Mays and
Sooknanan, 2021). Across various management disciplines, social media data is increasingly
viewed as a cost-effective and insightful source of trends, with healthcare studies particularly
exploring its potential in monitoring disease outbreaks (Aggarwal, Gour and Kumar, 2022).
By leveraging UGC from social media platforms, emergency organizations can collect real
time data on the spread, location, symptoms, and severity of humanitarian crises, enabling
more informed decision-making and proactive response measures (Braccini, Federici and
Sæbø, 2019; Khurana, Kumar and Qiu, 2019). In the healthcare industry, establishing
mechanisms for gathering and monitoring social media data in real-time can prove
invaluable, as a reactive approach to data analysis may offer limited effectiveness in
mitigating the impact of humanitarian disease outbreaks (Baskerville and Mikhaeil, 2019).
In conclusion, the role of user-generated content (UGC) and social media platforms in
humanitarian reporting is both transformative and complex. While these platforms offer
unprecedented opportunities for real-time information sharing, community engagement, and
global solidarity during crises, they also present significant challenges related to credibility,
privacy, and the dissemination of misinformation. Nevertheless, the essentiality of UGC for
humanitarian news reporting cannot be overstated, especially when organizations effectively
process and utilize this data. Citizen journalism remains a dynamic field that continues to
evolve, adapting to new social contexts and leveraging advancements in communication,
collaboration, information management, and social computing tools (Norris, 2017). As
technology continues to advance and society becomes increasingly interconnected, it is
imperative for humanitarian organizations, media outlets, and policymakers to navigate the
ethical, technical, and practical considerations surrounding the use of UGC in reporting on
humanitarian crises. By embracing innovation, promoting responsible reporting practices, and
prioritizing the voices of affected communities, we can harness the power of citizen
journalism and social media to foster greater awareness, empathy, and action in addressing
humanitarian challenges worldwide.
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